Health and Disease (intro)
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Pathogens and Infectious Disease 20 questions
A pathogen is a micro-organism that can cause disease. State the four main types of pathogen, and give one example disease caused by each.
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The four main types of pathogen are:
- Bacteria — e.g. Salmonella food poisoning
- Viruses — e.g. influenza (flu)
- Fungi — e.g. athlete's foot
- Protists (protozoa) — e.g. malaria
Diseases caused by pathogens can be transmitted (spread) between people in several different ways.
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| Disease | Caused by | Type of pathogen |
|---|---|---|
| Flu | Influenza virus | ? |
| Malaria | Plasmodium | ? |
| Salmonella food poisoning | Salmonella bacteria | ? |
| Athlete's foot | Tinea fungus | ? |
Copy and complete the table above by identifying the type of pathogen (bacterium, virus, fungus or protist) responsible for each disease.
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Flu — virus. Malaria — protist. Salmonella food poisoning — bacterium. Athlete's foot — fungus.
Bacteria reproduce asexually by a process called binary fission, where one bacterial cell splits into two identical daughter cells. Under ideal warm, moist conditions, a certain species of bacteria divides once every $20\,\text{minutes}$.
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Number of divisions in $2$ hours ($120$ min): $$ n = \frac{120}{20} = 6 $$
Number of bacteria: $$ N = 2^{n} = 2^{6} = 64 $$
Answer: $64$ bacteria.
Explain two differences between bacteria and viruses, in terms of their structure and how they reproduce.
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Structure: bacteria are living single cells, with their own cell wall, cytoplasm and genetic material; viruses are not made of cells at all, are much smaller than bacteria, and are not considered fully "living" outside a host.
Reproduction: bacteria can reproduce independently by binary fission, splitting themselves in two; viruses cannot reproduce on their own — they must invade a living host cell and use the host cell's own machinery to make copies of themselves, which is also why viral infections can destroy host cells as new viruses are released.
Athlete's foot is caused by a fungal pathogen, and malaria is caused by a protist pathogen that is carried by mosquitoes.
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A single bacterium lands on a piece of food that is left unrefrigerated. Under these warm conditions it divides once every $30\,\text{minutes}$.
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$$ n = \frac{4 \times 60}{30} = 8 \text{ divisions} $$
$$ N = 2^{8} = 256 $$
Answer: $256$ bacteria.
$2^{9} = 512$ (below $1000$), but $2^{10} = 1024$ (above $1000$), so $10$ divisions are needed.
$$ t = 10 \times 30 = 300 \text{ min} = 5\,\text{hours} $$
Answer: about $5$ hours.
A student wants to investigate whether the concentration of antibacterial hand soap affects how much bacterial growth it prevents. They will grow bacteria on agar plates, place paper discs soaked in different soap concentrations on the agar, and measure the diameter of the clear zone (where no bacteria grow) around each disc after $48$ hours of incubation.
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- Sterilise the inoculating loop by passing it through a Bunsen burner flame before and after use.
- Work near the lit Bunsen burner, which creates an updraft that carries airborne microbes away from the plate.
- Lift the petri dish lid only briefly, and tape (do not fully seal) the lid shut afterwards to allow air exchange while limiting contamination.
- Incubate the sealed plates at a controlled, safe temperature (below $25\,^{\circ}\text{C}$ in most school labs) to avoid growing pathogens that could infect humans.
A class wants to model how quickly an infectious disease can spread through a population by physically exchanging liquid samples that represent contact between people, then testing the samples with an indicator to reveal who has become "infected".
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A student tested how well three different soaps reduce bacteria on hands. They washed their hands once with each soap, then pressed a finger onto an agar plate and counted the bacterial colonies that grew after incubation. Each soap was tested only once.
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| Day | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| New measles cases | 2 | 5 | 11 | 9 | 4 |
The table shows the number of new measles cases recorded each day during a small outbreak at a school.
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| Year | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vaccination coverage (%) | 85 | 90 | 95 | 80 |
| Measles cases (national) | 12000 | 6000 | 1500 | 9000 |
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| Patient | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Incubation period (days) | 12 | 13 | 11 | 2 | 14 | 12 |
The table shows the incubation period (time between exposure and first symptoms) recorded for six patients during a measles outbreak.
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A school has $2000$ students. A vaccination register shows that $1700$ of these students have been vaccinated against measles.
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| Method | Trial 1 | Trial 2 | Trial 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Water only | 82 | 79 | 85 |
| Soap | 14 | 11 | 17 |
| Hand sanitizer | 20 | 25 | 18 |
The table shows bacterial colony counts grown from finger swabs taken after washing hands using three different methods, repeated $3$ times each.
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Water only: $\dfrac{82+79+85}{3} = \dfrac{246}{3} = 82$
Soap: $\dfrac{14+11+17}{3} = \dfrac{42}{3} = 14$
Sanitizer mean: $\dfrac{20+25+18}{3} = \dfrac{63}{3} = 21$
Percentage reduction vs water: $\dfrac{82-21}{82}\times100 \approx 74.4\%$
Soap gives a larger percentage reduction ($\approx83\%$) than hand sanitizer ($\approx74\%$) in this data, so soap appears more effective at reducing bacteria on hands in this investigation.
The graph shows the number of new flu cases recorded each week at a large school, before and after a vaccination campaign began in week $4$.
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| Plate | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Colony count | 34 | 31 | 58 | 29 | 33 |
A student swabbed the same source and spread it onto $5$ identical agar plates to test the consistency (reliability) of their technique.
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$$ \frac{34+31+29+33}{4} = \frac{127}{4} = 31.75 $$
This is more reliable because it is not skewed by the one plate likely affected by a contamination error, so it better reflects the consistent pattern (bacterial growth) shown by the four plates that agree with each other.
Antibiotics are highly effective medicines against bacterial infections, but doctors are increasingly advised to prescribe them only when truly necessary, and patients are told to always complete the full course.
Discuss one benefit and one drawback/concern of widespread antibiotic use, referring to the idea of antibiotic resistance.
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Benefit: antibiotics have saved millions of lives by effectively curing bacterial infections that were once often fatal, such as pneumonia and infected wounds, and they make many modern medical procedures (like surgery) far safer by preventing and treating infection.
Drawback/concern: overusing antibiotics, or not completing a prescribed course, allows any bacteria with a natural, chance resistance to survive and reproduce, passing that resistance on. Over time, whole populations of bacteria (such as MRSA) can become resistant to multiple antibiotics, making common infections much harder, or in some cases impossible, to treat — which is why using antibiotics responsibly (only when needed, and completing the full course) is important to slow the spread of resistance.
During the 1918 flu pandemic, the disease took several months to spread between continents by ship. Today, international air travel means an infected person can reach the other side of the world in under $24$ hours — often before any symptoms even appear.
Discuss one benefit and one drawback of widespread modern air travel in relation to the spread of infectious disease.
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Benefit: fast international travel and communication also allow a rapid global response to outbreaks — medical experts, vaccines, equipment, and scientific data (such as a new pathogen's genetic sequence) can be shared between countries within days rather than months, helping researchers worldwide collaborate quickly on tracking and treating a new disease.
Drawback: because incubation periods (which can be several days) are often longer than flight times (hours), an infected but symptom-free traveller can unknowingly carry a pathogen to many different countries before an outbreak is even identified. This makes it far harder to contain a new infectious disease than in the past, when the slower speed of travel by ship gave more time for a disease to be identified and contained before it spread far.
During a serious outbreak of an infectious disease, governments sometimes require people to quarantine (stay away from others) for a period of time, even at the cost of missed school, work, and social contact.
Evaluate the use of quarantine measures during an infectious disease outbreak, discussing one benefit and one drawback/concern.
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Benefit: quarantine limits an infected (or possibly infected) person's contact with others during the time they are most likely to spread the pathogen, slowing or preventing further chains of transmission. This is especially valuable for a new disease with no vaccine or treatment yet available, and it helps protect the most vulnerable people (such as the elderly or those with weakened immune systems), who face the greatest risk of serious illness or death if infected.
Drawback/concern: strict quarantine can cause serious harm beyond the disease itself — lost income for workers who cannot do their job remotely, disrupted education, and increased loneliness or mental health difficulties, particularly for people living alone. These real costs mean that quarantine measures need to be balanced carefully against how severe the disease actually is, and are often most fair when combined with extra support, such as financial aid or access to online learning, to reduce the harm they cause.
The Immune System (basic) 20 questions
State four ways the human body prevents pathogens from entering in the first place (physical/chemical barriers), giving one example of each.
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- Skin — forms a physical barrier that most pathogens cannot cross.
- Mucus in the airways — traps inhaled pathogens and dust before they reach the lungs.
- Stomach acid — kills most pathogens swallowed with food or water.
- Tears and saliva — contain the enzyme lysozyme, which destroys bacterial cell walls.
Answer the following short questions about the immune system.
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Name the two main types of white blood cell involved in fighting infection, and briefly state the job of each.
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Phagocytes — engulf and digest pathogens directly, by a process called phagocytosis (a fast, non-specific response to any pathogen).
Lymphocytes — produce antibodies that are specific to a particular pathogen's antigens (part of the slower, specific response).
The diagram shows the three stages of phagocytosis, one of the body's defences against pathogens.
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Explain, using the idea of antigens and antibodies, why a person who has recovered from chickenpox does not usually catch it again, but this same immunity does not protect them from catching a cold (caused by a different virus).
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The first time a person is infected by a particular pathogen, it takes several days for the immune system to produce enough antibodies to fight it off — this is called the primary response. If the same pathogen infects the person again later, the response is much faster and stronger — the secondary response.
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Active immunity is produced when the body makes its own antibodies (e.g. after infection or vaccination). Passive immunity is gained when ready-made antibodies are given to the body (e.g. antibodies passed from a mother to a baby through breast milk, or given by injection).
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Lysozyme is an enzyme found in tears, saliva and mucus that breaks down bacterial cell walls. A student wants to investigate how temperature affects how quickly lysozyme can clear a cloudy bacterial suspension (as bacteria are destroyed, the suspension becomes clearer).
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A class builds a simple model of antibody specificity: each "antigen" is a uniquely-shaped paper cut-out, and each matching "antibody" is a card with a cut-out slot that only that one antigen shape fits into (like a lock and key). Students want to investigate whether having more different antigen shapes mixed together makes it take longer to find the correct matching antibody card for one target antigen.
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A student read that people who sleep less than $6$ hours a night get more colds. To test this at their school, they asked $8$ friends how many hours they usually slept, and how many colds they had that year, then compared the results between those sleeping under $6$ hours and those sleeping over $6$ hours.
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| Day | 0 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| White blood cell count (thousand cells/mm³) | 6 | 6 | 14 | 10 | 7 |
The table shows a patient's white blood cell count over $10$ days, during which they caught and recovered from an infection.
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The graph shows the concentration of a specific antibody in a person's blood following a first exposure to a pathogen at day $0$, and a second exposure to the same pathogen at day $25$.
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| Day | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body temperature (°C) | 37.8 | 38.9 | 39.4 | 38.6 | 37.5 | 37.0 |
The table shows a patient's body temperature recorded once a day during an infection. Normal resting body temperature is $37.0\,^{\circ}\text{C}$.
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| Group | Number of people | Number who caught the disease |
|---|---|---|
| Vaccinated | 500 | 15 |
| Unvaccinated | 500 | 210 |
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Vaccinated: $\dfrac{15}{500}\times100 = 3\%$
Unvaccinated: $\dfrac{210}{500}\times100 = 42\%$
| Cell type | Phagocytes | Lymphocytes | Other |
|---|---|---|---|
| Number (out of 200 counted) | 130 | 60 | 10 |
The table shows a differential count of $200$ white blood cells from a blood sample taken from a patient during a bacterial infection.
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| Patient | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antibody titre (units) | 82 | 79 | 85 | 20 | 81 |
The table shows antibody titre (antibody level) measured in $5$ patients $10$ days after receiving the same vaccine.
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| Vaccination coverage (%) | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 95 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| R number | 2.5 | 2.0 | 1.5 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.5 |
The table shows how a disease's reproduction number, $R$ (the average number of other people one infected person passes the disease to), changes with vaccination coverage in a population.
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Some countries require children to be vaccinated against certain diseases before they can attend school, while others rely only on voluntary vaccination.
Discuss one benefit and one drawback/concern of making vaccination against a serious infectious disease compulsory for school attendance.
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Benefit: mandatory vaccination policies tend to achieve much higher vaccination coverage across a population than voluntary schemes, which is important for reaching the herd immunity threshold and protecting vulnerable people who cannot be vaccinated themselves (e.g. due to allergies or a weakened immune system) — high coverage has historically sharply reduced or even eliminated school outbreaks of diseases like measles.
Drawback/concern: mandatory vaccination removes an element of personal or parental choice over a medical decision, which some families object to on medical, religious, or personal grounds; excluding unvaccinated children from school can also disadvantage their education. This means such policies need to balance protecting public health with respecting individual rights, often through exemption systems for genuine medical reasons.
When a patient receives an organ transplant (e.g. a kidney), their immune system usually recognises the new organ as "foreign" and attacks it, because it does not carry the patient's own antigens. To prevent this, patients are given immunosuppressant drugs, which deliberately weaken the immune system's response.
Discuss one benefit and one drawback/concern of using immunosuppressant drugs after an organ transplant.
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Benefit: by weakening the specific immune attack on the transplanted organ's antigens, immunosuppressant drugs allow the new organ to survive and function in the patient's body long-term, which can save or dramatically improve the life of a patient with organ failure who would otherwise have very limited treatment options.
Drawback/concern: because these drugs weaken the immune system generally, not just the response to the transplanted organ, patients become significantly more vulnerable to infections from ordinary pathogens that a healthy immune system would normally deal with easily. This means transplant patients often need extra precautions and can become seriously ill from infections that would be minor in most other people.
Modern sanitation, clean water, and hygiene practices have dramatically reduced deaths from infectious disease over the last century. Some scientists have also proposed the "hygiene hypothesis" — the idea that children in very low-pathogen-exposure environments may have higher rates of allergies and some autoimmune conditions, possibly because their immune systems have less early exposure to germs to "train" them properly.
Evaluate the impact of modern hygiene practices on health, discussing both a benefit and a possible concern.
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Benefit: clean water, sanitation, and hygiene practices (handwashing, food safety, sewage treatment) have been one of the single biggest contributors to increased life expectancy and reduced child mortality worldwide, by dramatically cutting rates of severe infectious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and diarrhoeal illnesses that once killed huge numbers of people, especially children.
Concern: the hygiene hypothesis is a proposed explanation, still researched and debated by scientists rather than fully proven, suggesting that significantly reduced early-life exposure to a wide variety of harmless microbes may be linked to the rise in allergies, asthma, and some autoimmune conditions seen in many developed countries over recent decades, since the immune system may need some level of early challenge to develop properly. However, this idea must be weighed very carefully against the proven, very large benefits of hygiene in preventing serious infectious disease — reducing hygiene practices generally would not be a safe way to address this concern.
Healthy Lifestyle Choices 20 questions
State four of the main nutrient groups found in a balanced diet, giving one food source for each.
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Any four of, e.g.:
- Carbohydrates — e.g. bread, pasta, rice (main energy source)
- Proteins — e.g. meat, fish, beans, eggs (growth and repair of tissues)
- Fats — e.g. oils, butter, nuts (energy store, insulation)
- Vitamins and minerals — e.g. fruit and vegetables (many roles, e.g. Vitamin C for immune function, calcium for bones)
- Fibre — e.g. wholegrain foods, vegetables (aids digestion)
- Water — essential for almost all body processes
Answer the following short questions about lifestyle and health.
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Define "Body Mass Index (BMI)" and state the formula used to calculate it.
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BMI is a number calculated from a person's mass and height, used as a simple (though imperfect) screening tool to estimate whether someone's weight is in a healthy range relative to their height.
$$ BMI = \frac{\text{mass (kg)}}{[\text{height (m)}]^{2}} $$
A $14$-year-old has a mass of $58\,\text{kg}$ and a height of $1.60\,\text{m}$.
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$$ BMI = \frac{\text{mass}}{\text{height}^2} = \frac{58}{1.60^2} = \frac{58}{2.56} $$
Answer: $BMI = 22.7$ (1 d.p.)
Explain, in terms of energy intake and energy use, why a person who regularly eats more food energy (calories) than their body uses is likely to gain weight over time, and what must change for them to lose weight instead.
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Regularly drinking alcohol in large amounts is linked to several long-term health problems.
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A packet of crisps contains $840\,\text{kJ}$ of energy per $100\,\text{g}$ serving. A teenager eats a $50\,\text{g}$ portion. Their recommended daily energy intake is $9000\,\text{kJ}$.
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Weekly excess energy: $$ 420 \times 7 = 2940\,\text{kJ} $$
Mass of fat stored: $$ \frac{2940}{32000} \approx 0.092\,\text{kg} \ (\approx 92\,\text{g}) $$
A student wants to investigate how the intensity of exercise affects heart rate recovery time (the time taken for heart rate to return to its resting level after exercise stops).
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A student wants to compare the sugar content of different breakfast cereals using Benedict's solution, which changes colour from blue towards orange/brick-red when heated with a reducing sugar — the more sugar present, the further the colour change progresses.
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A magazine reported: "Students who eat breakfast get better exam grades." The study behind this asked $30$ students at one high-achieving school whether they usually ate breakfast, and compared this to their exam grades that year.
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| Day | Mon | Tue | Wed | Thu | Fri | Sat | Sun |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Steps walked | 4500 | 6200 | 8100 | 12000 | 7300 | 15200 | 9800 |
The table shows the number of steps a person walked each day over one week.
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| Day | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sugar consumed (g) | 45 | 62 | 38 | 71 | 50 |
The table shows one person's added sugar intake, recorded over $5$ days. A common guideline recommends a maximum of about $30\,\text{g}$ of added sugar per day for a teenager.
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| Activity | Walking | Cycling | Running | Swimming |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy used per 30 min (kJ) | 600 | 900 | 1500 | 1100 |
A chocolate bar contains $1200\,\text{kJ}$ of energy. The table shows the approximate energy used by $30$ minutes of different activities.
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Rate: $\dfrac{1500}{30} = 50\,\text{kJ/min}$
Time: $\dfrac{1200}{50} = 24\,\text{minutes}$
Rate: $\dfrac{600}{30} = 20\,\text{kJ/min}$. Time: $\dfrac{1200}{20} = 60\,\text{minutes}$.
Even a fairly high-energy snack ($1200\,\text{kJ}$) takes a full hour of walking (or still $24$ minutes of running) to use up. This shows how much easier and quicker it is to consume excess energy through food than to use it up through exercise — which is why a balanced diet is generally considered at least as important as exercise for managing weight, rather than relying only on exercising more to compensate for a poor diet.
| Sleep (hours) | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Errors made in reaction time test | 9 | 7 | 4 | 3 | 3 |
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| Student | Mass (kg) | Height (m) |
|---|---|---|
| A | 50 | 1.55 |
| B | 70 | 1.60 |
| C | 45 | 1.50 |
| D | 80 | 1.75 |
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Student A: $\dfrac{50}{1.55^2} = \dfrac{50}{2.4025} \approx 20.8$
Student D: $\dfrac{80}{1.75^2} = \dfrac{80}{3.0625} \approx 26.1$
| Day | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Resting heart rate (bpm) | 68 | 70 | 66 | 95 | 69 |
A student recorded their resting heart rate on five consecutive mornings, to establish a baseline before starting a new fitness programme.
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| Year | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Average daily screen time (hours) | 2.5 | 3.5 | 4.5 | 5.5 | 6.5 |
| Childhood obesity rate (%) | 10 | 14 | 17 | 21 | 25 |
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Several countries have introduced a "sugar tax" — an extra tax added to sugary soft drinks, making them more expensive, with the aim of reducing consumption and improving public health.
Discuss one benefit and one drawback/concern of a sugar tax on soft drinks.
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Benefit: making sugary drinks more expensive tends to reduce how much people buy and consume, particularly among those most sensitive to price such as younger people and lower-income households. This can reduce sugar intake across a population and, over time, help lower rates of obesity, type $2$ diabetes, and tooth decay linked to high sugar consumption — some countries introducing such a tax have reported measurable falls in sugary drink sales soon afterwards.
Drawback/concern: a flat tax like this affects lower-income households proportionally more than wealthier ones, since the extra cost is a bigger share of a smaller income (it is a "regressive" tax), meaning it could place a heavier financial burden on people who already have less money, without necessarily changing everyone's habits equally. Critics argue it may be fairer to combine the tax with education programmes, or make healthier options cheaper, rather than relying on cost alone.
Many countries restrict how junk food (high in sugar, salt, or fat) can be advertised to children, for example by banning such adverts during children's television programmes.
Discuss one benefit and one drawback/concern of restricting junk food advertising aimed at children.
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Benefit: children are generally less able than adults to critically evaluate advertising, and are shown to be strongly influenced by what they see advertised. Restricting junk food adverts aimed at them can reduce "pester power" (children asking parents to buy advertised products) and reduce children's exposure to persuasive messaging encouraging poor food choices, supporting healthier eating habits and helping address rising childhood obesity rates.
Drawback/concern: such restrictions can be difficult and costly to enforce fully, especially given how much advertising children now see through online video, social media, and games rather than just traditional TV, meaning the policy may have limited real-world effect unless regularly updated and enforced across all media. Food and advertising companies may also argue the restrictions unfairly limit legitimate business activity and reduce parental choice/responsibility.
Fitness tracking apps and wearable devices (e.g. smartwatches) let users track their daily steps, exercise, sleep, and even heart rate, and social media is now full of health and fitness content aimed at teenagers and young people.
Evaluate the impact of fitness tracking technology and social media health content on teenagers, discussing both a benefit and a concern.
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Benefit: fitness trackers can give teenagers clear, motivating, real-time feedback on their activity levels, sleep, and progress towards healthy goals, such as reaching a daily step count, which can genuinely help build awareness of and encourage regular exercise and better sleep habits from a young age. Social media can also spread useful, accessible health information and connect people with supportive fitness communities.
Concern: not all health information shared on social media is accurate or evidence-based, and constant exposure to idealised images and extreme fitness/diet content can contribute to unhealthy comparisons, body image issues, and, in some cases, disordered eating patterns among teenagers, who may be especially vulnerable to this kind of social pressure during adolescence. Relying heavily on a device's numbers can also become an unhealthy obsession for some users rather than a helpful tool, so this technology needs to be used thoughtfully, ideally alongside reliable guidance from trusted adults or health professionals, rather than uncritically.